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Empathy to action: Child and adolescent out-group attitudes and prosocial behaviors in a setting of intergroup conflict
The paper explored how to promote constructive intergroup relations among children and young people in a context of protracted conflict. Across two studies, the Empathy–Attitudes–Action model was examined in middle childhood and adolescence. More specifically, we tested the relations among dispositional empathy, out-group attitudes, and prosocial behaviors for youth born after the peace agreement in Northern Ireland. In one correlational (Study 1: N = 132; 6–11 years old: M = 8.42 years, SD = 1.23) and one longitudinal design (Study 2: N = 466; 14–15 years old), bootstrapped mediation analyses revealed that empathy was associated with more positive attitudes toward the conflict-related out-group, which in turn, was related to higher out-group prosocial behaviors, both self-report and concrete actions. Given that out-group prosocial acts in a setting of intergroup conflict may serve as the antecedents for peacebuilding among children and adolescents, this study has intervention implications.
From injustice to action: The role of empathy and perceived fairness to address inequality via victim compensation
Acting prosocially towards others may sometimes involve tangible costs to self, which can be associated with lower motivation to help those who have been the victims of injustice. In contrast to previous work which suggests that empathy does not shape the perceptions of injustice, the present research proposes that while perceptions of fairness in the context of injustice are dynamic, they may well be shaped by empathy. Using a dictator-style paradigm, the present research explored the extent to which empathy is related to perceptions of injustice and in turn, compensating forms of inequality. A non-registered Study 1 (N = 466) found that higher empathy predisposition is related to perceiving more injustice in contexts of inequality. Preregistered Study 2 (N = 406) extended this finding by experimentally manipulating empathy, showing that emphasising with the victim of inequality is indirectly related to perceiving injustice. The hypothesised mechanism, empathy allowing identification and experiencing the feelings of anger associated with the injustice, is supported in Study 2. As such, perceptions of fairness are not static; empathy is argued to be an important mechanism in forming justice perceptions. Data and supplementary materials: [DOI: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/83V4U].
Micro-ecological behavior and intergroup contact
Research evaluating intergroup contact has tended to rely on self-report measures. Drawing on recent micro-ecological research, the two studies reported here used a multi-method approach to examine contact in a more holistic fashion. This involved the measurement of observable behavior at the micro-level, intergroup attitudes via infrahumanization and focus groups. Participants were taking part in a community intervention program in Northern Ireland. We conclude that micro-ecological behavior is not necessarily indicative of outgroup attitudes. Although behavior and attitudes changed in line with one another in Study 1 (less aggregation and significantly less infrahumanization), there were no infrahumanization differences between those who sat beside an outgroup member and those who did not. Importantly, the work presented here illustrates a unique method that allows micro-ecological behavioral observations to be made for the first time in non-racial settings. © 2012 Copyright Taylor and Francis Group, LLC.
Solidarity across group lines: Secondary transfer effect of intergroup contact, perceived moral distance, and collective action
We tested, in three studies, whether the generalization of contact effects from primary to secondary outgroups—the secondary transfer effect (STE)—occurs for collective action. The results supported a serial mediation model: contact with immigrants by advantaged group members (Italians: Study 1, N = 146, 121 females, Mage = 28.31 years; Study 3, N = 406, 239 females, Mage = 36.35; British people, Study 2, N = 160, 113 females, Mage = 32.31) was associated with lower perceived moral distance toward primary outgroups, which in turn was associated with more positive attitudes and greater collective action intentions toward primary outgroups, and lower perceived moral distance toward secondary outgroups. Lower perceived moral distance toward secondary outgroups and stronger collective action intentions toward the primary outgroup were associated with higher collective action intentions toward secondary outgroups (results were inconsistent for attitudes). We discuss the findings with a focus on how a consideration of perceived moral distance extends current theorizing, and the relevance of generalized prejudice for the STE.
PERCEIVED TEACHER SUPPORT, COLLECTIVE EFFICACY IN SCHOOL, AND CONSTRUCTIVE ENGAGEMENT AMONG YOUTH IN A CONFLICT-AFFECTED SOCIETY
In conflict-affected societies, teachers are critical to supporting positive youth development and encouraging constructive societal contributions. The present research examined the role of perceived teacher support on youth collective efficacy in school and implications for constructive engagement. Recruited through their schools as part of a larger study, 395 youth (aged 15-16, evenly split by religion and gender) completed survey measures of perceived teacher support, collective efficacy in school, and two constructs assessing constructive engagement: nonviolent strategies to manage conflict and collective action for refugees. To test the effects of teacher support on constructive engagement through collective efficacy, bootstrapped mediation analysis was conducted. Collective efficacy in school mediated the link between perceived teacher support and youth’s nonviolent strategies and collective action. Findings highlight the importance of teacher support and collective efficacy in promoting constructive engagement. Implications for teacher training and interventions that aim to engage youth in society are discussed.
Negative contact, collective action, and social change: Critical reflections, technological advances, and new directions
Intergroup contact research has expanded exponentially in the last few decades, with researchers employing a widening range of methods to offer new insights into the effects of both positive and negative contact experiences. In this commentary, we discuss the contributions of three papers to this special issue of the Journal of Social Issues on advances in intergroup contact research, namely Schäfer et al.’s (2021) review of research on negative intergroup contact experiences, Hässler et al.’s (2020) review of research on intergroup contact and social change, and O'Donnell et al.’s (2021) review of technological and analytic advances in contact research. Having outlined the key arguments of each paper, we then offer some theoretical and methodological reflections, also discussing potential gaps, connections, opportunities, and future directions along the way. We end by reflecting on a common theme that permeates our commentary: the need to contextualize adequately the dynamics of intergroup contact across a range of everyday settings. Here we argue that to fully understand how to promote beneficial forms of intergroup contact, we need to consider more carefully how contact is experienced, enacted, and evaluated “on the ground” by participants themselves. This requires work of both theoretical and methodological innovation.
Intimate intergroup contact across the lifespan
Intergroup contact can be as casual as members of different groups walking past one another on the street or as intimate as developing cross-group friendships or romantic relationships. To date, however, the majority of intergroup contact research has focused on examining the effects of contact through self-report measures of interactions and friendships. While this research has made a substantial contribution to scientific understanding, less is known about how different forms of contact (casual vs. intimate) influence each other and are associated with outcomes across the lifespan. The present article focuses on intimate contact; a close and meaningful relationship or interaction with either an ingroup or outgroup member. We critically review the nature and consequences (good and bad) of intimate contact for children, youth and adults and for both majority and minority group members, focusing primarily on intimate intergroup contact. We also consider how intimate contact might be best measured in future research. Implications for research design, policy, and practice are considered.
May the odds be ever in your favor: The Hunger Games and the fight for a more equal society. (Negative) Media vicarious contact and collective action
Various studies have found that reading books about positive interactions between ingroup and outgroup characters, known as media vicarious contact, can reduce prejudice. Focusing on the fantasy saga of The Hunger Games, we examined the effects of negative vicarious contact on collective action across two studies. Specifically, we tested whether reading about fantasy characters living in a postapocalyptic conflictual society with large social disparities between advantaged and disadvantaged groups leads advantaged group members to display greater willingness to engage in collective action on behalf of the disadvantaged group. Results from Study 1 (correlational survey in the United Kingdom and United States) and Study 2 (experimental intervention in Italy) revealed that reading The Hunger Games is indirectly associated with greater collective action intentions via increased anger toward injustice. In both studies social dominance orientation (SDO) acted as a moderator, but in opposite directions: mediation was significant for low-SDOs in Study 1, and for high-SDOs in Study 2. Results are discussed in relation to the importance of media vicarious contact via book reading for social change, and to the need to identify the contextual conditions allowing to anticipate the specific moderation pattern that is more likely to emerge.
Classroom segregation: Where do students sit and how is this related to group relations?
With increasing ethnic and racial diversity in the classroom, understanding classroom dynamics and the use of space has become increasingly important. In particular, when theoretical perspectives, such as that offered by intergroup contact research, promotes the importance of contact between competing groups to improve relations. Adopting a behavioural approach, the research presented here observed intergroup behaviour between Protestants and Catholics, through seating choice, in three integrated secondary schools in Northern Ireland. In addition, it considered the use of classroom seating plans by teachers. The sample involved students from Year 8 (aged 11-12) and Year 10 (aged 13-14), and their teachers. For observations of seating behaviour, data collection took place at three time points in the school year (September, January and June). Teachers were asked to complete a questionnaire regarding their use of seating plans during the January data collection phase. Seating choice was analysed using a statistical index of segregation. Results found persistent religious segregation over time, despite intergroup contact potential. In addition, the use of teacher enforced seating plans was examined and evaluated, suggesting that they may be restricting natural opportunities for intergroup friendship formation. Findings are discussed in relation to implications for theoretical understandings of contact theory, research methods and policy.
Knowledge exchange, intergroup relations and ‘sharing space’: a community of enquiry for the professional development of teachers of religion and worldviews
We present a distinctive approach to knowledge exchange used in the ‘Shared Space’ project; an inter-disciplinary researcher–teacher partnership using Allport’s contact theory contact theory as a lens to interpret teachers’ self-reported practice in the subject Religion and Worldviews (RWE). By so doing, we created new professional knowledge and understanding of how RWE could be used as a vehicle for promoting community relations. At the project’s heart was a team of six whose collaboration across the theory-practice divide has proved unusually close and successful. Here we reflect as a team on our relationships, with each other and the project, through a ‘Collective Writing’ approach, identifying positive experiences, tensions and disagreements, and strategies used to (partially) resolve these. Issues we faced included potentially irreconcilable differences within and across disciplines related to ontology and epistemology. We identify three particular strategies we have used to address them: reciprocal hospitality and embodying Allport’s contact principles within a ‘community of enquiry’. We conclude that, despite the challenges, we have remained a strong and productive team, literally ‘sharing space’, by affording each team member equal status; collaborating towards common goals and in ways that have been supported by our respective institutions. 193/200.
(De)humanization and (dis)trust: Representations of Muslims in the UK newspapers following the 7/7 London bombings.
Dehumanization and distrust can have devastating consequences for intergroup relations. Until now, few studies have examined the ways in which both (de)humanizing and (dis)trustful discourse are presented in popular media. Recognizing the detrimental effects of terrorism on intergroup attitudes and the power of media in influencing social and political attitudes, the present research examined the frequency of (de)humanizing and (dis)trustful statements in newspaper coverage of the July 7, 2005, London bombings in the aftermath and at the 10-year anniversary of the attack. Drawing from theoretical work on dehumanization, it was expected that (de)humanizing content in media coverage about a stereotyped outgroup would be linked to (dis)trust of that group, and would also be linked to political orientation of the media source. Primary analyses were conducted using an existing manual coding framework for frequency of (de)humanizing and (dis)trustful statements. Results from the coding show that dehumanizing and distrusting discourse was more frequent than humanizing and trusting discourse. Whereas dehumanization was significantly correlated with distrust only in the right-wing source, humanization was significantly correlated with trust only in the left-wing source. The findings advance theoretical understandings of (de)humanization and humanization as they manifest in media discourse following a terrorist event, and how these relate to outgroup (dis)trust. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved) Public Significance Statement: An analysis of UK newspaper coverage of the 7/7 bombings in London revealed a high frequency of dehumanizing discourse about Muslims, particularly in the aftermath (compared to the 10-year anniversary). Further, results varied based on political orientation of the source, such that dehumanization of Muslims was associated with distrust in the right-wing news source, whereas humanization was associated with trust in the left-wing news source. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved)
Fostering social change among advantaged and disadvantaged group members: Integrating intergroup contact and social identity perspectives on collective action
Recent research on intergroup contact has shown how interactions with outgroup members may both decrease and increase motivations to achieve social equality. Similarly, social identity theory has identified the conditions that lead individuals to challenge unequal social systems. Integrating these two major theories, the current study examined the processes underlying the relationship between intergroup contact and participants’ willingness to engage in collective action to challenge social inequality. Specifically, we tested sociostructural variables (status legitimacy and stability, and permeability of group boundaries) as potential mediators of contact in a sample of both advantaged (Italian high school students, N = 392) and disadvantaged (immigrant high school students, N = 165) group members. We found that contact was positively associated with motivation for change, an effect mediated by decreased perceived legitimacy of status differences. Moreover, for the advantaged group, membership salience moderated the effects of quality (but not quantity) of contact. Indirect effects were instead not moderated by content of contact (an index considering the extent to which contact was characterized by a focus on differences vs. commonalities between groups). Theoretical and practical implications of findings are discussed.
Introduction to intergroup contact and collective action: Integrative perspectives
The bodies of research on intergroup contact and on collective action have historically remained separate in their pursuit to understand how to promote social equality. In recent years, however, researchers have begun to explore the extent to which contact and collective action work together or against each other in the pursuit of social change. To date, there is mixed evidence on the relation between these two constructs, with some suggesting that intergroup contact can have ironic effects by reducing the likelihood that disadvantaged group members will engage in collective action in favor of their own group. The goal of this Special Issue is to better understand the effect that intergroup contact can have on collective action and ignite a new body of research that directly considers the relation between the two. The papers comprising this Special Issue offer unique and yet complementary perspectives, highlighting the importance of moving beyond dyadic relations, the need to consider intergroup friendships and social embeddedness, the value of promoting inclusive identities and how support for collective action not only differs by group status but is also influenced by individual differences. Together, the papers offer theoretical and methodological suggestions to move research in this important field forward.
A new agenda for examining interethnic interactions amongst youth in diverse settings
Social psychological research on youth intergroup relations has primarily examined interactions between dichotomous groups through cross-sectional and self-report measures in single contexts. Such traditional approaches, however, are unable to capture the dynamic nature of intergroup relations for youth growing up in multicultural societies. In this chapter, the authors briefly review the existing literature on youth interethnic interactions. They next discuss some theoretical and methodological limitations of this research. They then review the handful of studies focused on youths’ behaviour in diverse contexts, as well as emerging research examining youth and behavioural trajectories when moving beyond the dichotomies of Black and White. They end the chapter by proposing a new research agenda which brings youth intergroup relations into context and extends theoretical boundaries by drawing on a range of innovative methods. They argue this broader approach is needed if we are to truly understand the implications of growing ethnic diversity for youth.
The “contact hypothesis”: Critical reflections and future directions
Research on intergroup contact has grown exponentially over the past decade. Such research has typically extolled the benefits of positive interaction between members of historically divided communities, particularly on outcomes related to prejudice reduction. Emerging work in the field, however, has qualified this optimistic picture by identifying three gaps in the existing literature. First, in everyday life, contact may be construed as a negative experience that increases rather than decreases responses such as prejudice, anxiety, and avoidance. Second, in real-life settings, contact is often circumscribed by informal practices of (re)segregation that are easily overlooked if researchers rely primarily on examining structured contact and explicit processes using primarily laboratory and questionnaire methods. Third, positive contact may have “ironic” effects on the political attitudes and behaviors of the historically disadvantaged, undermining their recognition of social injustice and decreasing their willingness to engage in collective action to challenge the status quo. Although it is now a truism that intergroup contact can reduce intergroup prejudice, these developments emphasize the importance of maintaining a critical perspective on the “contact hypothesis” as a model for promoting social change in historically divided and unequal societies. They also lay the foundations for future developments in the field.
Endorsing narratives under threat: Maintaining perceived collective continuity through the protective power of ingroup narratives in Northern Ireland and Cyprus
In historically divided societies, narratives play an important role in understanding the maintenance and perception of identities and group status over time. Moving beyond the consequences of identity continuity perceptions, in this paper we were interested in the antecedents of perceived collective continuity, specifically the role of narratives and threat perceptions. We predicted that endorsement of ingroup narratives would be associated with higher perceived continuity through stronger perceptions of group threat. To test this hypothesis, we recruited participants from both majority and minority groups in Northern Ireland (N = 268) and in Cyprus (N = 413) to complete an online survey to examine their endorsement of ingroup and outgroup narratives, their perceptions of identity continuity and feelings of threat. We tested these predictions with path analyses. In line with our hypothesis, results demonstrate that, for both majority and minority groups, if group members feel threatened they are more likely to endorse their ingroup historical narrative as this helps them to maintain a sense of continuity of their ingroup identity. Findings are discussed in relation to the importance of considering narratives in intergroup relations.
Social psychology and peace
Social psychologists seek to understand how social phenomena are related to attitudes and behaviours, and are impacted by group presence and belonging. Interest in social psychology flourished in the 1940s. Motivated by the Holocaust, researchers wished to understand why individuals would perform such acts of evil, and under what conditions these acts would be most likely to occur. This surge in research paved the way for social psychology’s contribution to the understanding of peace: a contribution not always recognized by social psychologists.
Perceptions of a superordinate identity in Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland is still a deeply divided society where national and religious identities remain important. In recent years, the emergence of a new identity, "Northern Irish," has attracted researchers' attention. It has been suggested that it may be acting as a common ingroup identity, associated with more positive intergroup attitudes. This study aimed to examine perceptions of the Northern Irish identity. It was predicated that British Protestants and Irish Catholics would perceive the Northern Irish identity differently and that identity strength would influence perception of inclusion, but only through subgroup identity threat. Using a cross-sectional survey, participants who self-identified as British Protestant (n = 76), Irish Catholic (n = 41), Northern Irish Protestant (n = 78), or Northern Irish Catholic (n = 13) were asked to report their strength of identity in addition to how inclusive and threatening they felt the Northern Irish identity to be. They were also asked to indicate who they think uses the Northern Irish identity and what it means. Result show that Irish Catholics were less likely to perceive the Northern Irish identity as inclusive, compared to British Protestants but there were no differences on perceptions of threat. Threat was found to mediate the relationship between identity strength and superordinate identity inclusion. The Northern Irish identity was suggested to be mostly used by British Protestants but the meaning of this identity differed, both within and between identity groups. These findings have implications for understanding the real world applicability of a superordinate identity and for societies trying to move forward from sustained periods of conflict.
Examining non-racial segregation: A micro-ecological approach
A number of studies in both South Africa and the United States of America have indicated the presence of an 'informal' segregation that is active in everyday life spaces and which is resistant to changes in macro level social policy. This research has however been conducted in societies where segregation and division has been based on skin colour. We sought to adapt a micro-ecological technique for use in a non-racially segregated setting, in this case lecture theatres at a University in Northern Ireland. Using seat numbers to examine seating patterns we found that levels of segregation persisted throughout a semester. The success of this methodology in capturing this information has far-reaching implications for the future study of the micro-ecology of contact. © 2011 The British Psychological Society.