How is free time used in complex span tasks?

Giving people more time between encoding items into working memory improves performance. In complex span tasks, performance depends on the cognitive load imposed by a secondary task carried out between encoding items; free time is one variable determining cognitive load. Explanations of the effects of time and of cognitive load on working memory often build on the assumption that time is used for maintenance processes such as rehearsal or refreshing. This leads to the prediction that a manipulation of time has a retroactive effect on items encoded before. In contrast, the encoding resource account suggests that free time has a proactive benefit by replenishing encoding resources between items, thereby improving encoding of subsequent items. In four experiments, we examined whether giving additional free time resulted in a proactive or retroactive benefit in a modified complex-span task. We found that, whereas the secondary task led to a retroactive detriment, the free time benefit was proactive. These findings call for a new way of thinking about the time-related effects of cognitive load in working memory. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).